CHAPTER 13
THE SHUTTLE IN INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE

d'Allest, Frederic. "Ariane vs. Shuttle: The State of Competition." Air & Cosmos. 11 March 1978, pp. 25-29. This short article surveys the development of the Shuttle in the latter 1970s as a competitor to the European Space Agency's projected heavy-payload launch vehicle, Ariane.

Arenstein, Seth. "Blizzard from Baikonur." Ad Astra. 1 (February 1989): 14-18. Describes the development of the Soviet Shuttle "Buran" and the Soviet space program, emphasizing design, construction, and space policy, and then compares it to the U.S. Shuttle program. Comments on the flight of the Buran Shuttle, launched from Baikonur on 16 November 1988.

Billstein, Roger E. "International Aerospace Engineering: NASA Shuttle and European Spacelab." Unpublished paper prepared for the NASA-ASEE Summer Faculty Fellow Program, 12 August 1981. This paper was prepared to discuss the interrelationships between the NASA and the European space programs for the conduct of a Shuttle mission to launch the Spacelab. It deals largely with the policy and diplomatic history of the subject.

Culbertson, Phillip E., and Bold, T.P. "Opening a New Era in Space--Space Transportation System Utilizing Shuttle, Spacelab, and Interim Upper Stage." Astronautics & Aeronautics. 15 (April 1977): 20-25. This article explores the overall payload planning efforts aimed at initial projected use of the Shuttle to establish a new capability for exploring space through operations that could not be performed before. The first payloads were suppose to fly on orbital test flights beginning in March 1979. After these tests the Shuttle was expected to build up to as many as 60 flights a year by 1984. The payloads have been chosen to make special contributions to the management on a global scale of the interrelationships of production, consumption, population growth, and pollution.

Forbrich, Carl A., Jr. "The Soviet Space Shuttle Program." Air University Review. 31 (May/June 1980): 55-62. A cogent review and assessment of what was known in an unclassified setting about the Soviet Union's efforts to build its own reusable orbiter with a configuration similar to the United States.

Froehlich, Walter. Spacelab: An International Short-Stay Orbiting Laboratory. Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1983. This is an interesting short study of Spacelab, the Shuttle-based laboratory built by ESA as a cooperative venture with NASA. It is heavily illustrated and designed for a popular audience.

Gatland, Kenneth. "A Soviet Space Shuttle?" Spaceflight. 20 (September/October 1978): 322-26. A solid piece reporting that the Soviet Union was apparently working on its own version of a reusable orbiter. Gatland develops the argument that the Soviet efforts to build a Shuttle were to support the orbiting of a permanent space station by the end of the 1970s. Some time after the summer of 1973 it was reported by Soviet sources in connection with the planned operation of long-life orbital stations as "man's highway to space" that it would be necessary to have transport ships making regular flights from earth to orbit and back. The favored system, it was said, would be an unoccupied first stage and a piloted stage of aircraft type that could land at an airfield upon reentry. A test vehicle was launched in a series of glide experiments from a Tupolev Tu-95 Bear. In a broadcast by Moscow radio on 11 June 1978 it was stated that the design of the Soviet Shuttle was different from the American. The craft would resemble an aircraft with delta wings. Its rear part would carry three powerful rocket engines.

Hammel, R.L., Gilliam, A.S., and Waltz, D.M. "Space Processing Payloads--A Requirements Overview." Journal of the British Interplanetary Society. 30 (October 1977): 363-77. This article considers the space processing applications with regard to the user community offered by the Shuttle. The development of a series of low-gravity materials processing experiments, including crystal growth and solids, is described along with the program requirements for such research. Spacelab should satisfy many of these efforts in partnership with the Shuttle. The authors also review the results of an eight-month study which defines and investigates possible space application payloads for the Shuttle, with special attention to payload design criteria, mission planning, and analyses regarding costs and scheduling.

Hoffman, H.E.W. The Space Laboratory: A European-American Cooperative Effort. Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1981. This short work, a translation of a West German study, reviews the history of the European participation in the American Space Shuttle project. Some early work carried out in West Germany on the rocket-powered second stage of a reusable launch vehicle system is cited, in particular wind tunnel studies of the aerodynamic and flight-mechanical behavior of various lifting body configurations in the subsonic range. Also highlighted is the development of international cooperation in the Shuttle program, especially noting West German interest and expertise. Also mentioned is the U.S.'s decision to exclude Europe from participating in the design of the orbiter and the booster stage of the Shuttle.

International Cooperation and Competition in Space. Washington, DC: U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science and Technology, 1984. This publication contains the proceedings of hearings on the subject given before the subcommittee on Space Science and Applications given 25 July 1984 at the 98th Cong., 2d Sess.

Jastrow, Robert, and Newell, Homer E. "The Space Program and the National Interest." Foreign Affairs. 50 (April 1972): 532- 44. This article is not specifically related to the Shuttle, but it presents an argument in an important forum about the nature of the space program and comments on the Shuttle in relation to that program. The authors contend that the American space program sprang principally from considerations of national security and international prestige. That motivated most of its efforts in the 1960s and informed them since that time. They assert that the Shuttle is an important step forward because it represents an opportunity to move into global service as never before because of its potential to serve the needs of all humankind. While they conclude that it will be a cost effective means of reaching space, they argue that "its prime importance lies in the fact that space is an arena in which several nations are, or soon will be, engaged. The United States must maintain a presence in that arena through a manned flight program to preserve its position as a world power."

Koelle, Dietrich E., and Butler, George V. ed. Shuttle/Spacelab: The New Space Transportation System and its Utilization. San Diego, CA: Univelt, 1981. This is a collection of papers relating to the development and uses of the Shuttle presented at the American Astronautical Society.

Lord, Douglas R. Spacelab: An International Success Story. Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1987. Spacelab was the European-developed and U.S.-operated space laboratory carried in the cargo bay of the Space Shuttle. This book details the history of this program from its conception, describing negotiations and agreements for European participation and the roles of Europe and the U.S. in system development, operational capability development, and utilization planning. More important, it reviews the joint management structure, coordination process, and the record in solving management and technical questions in an international setting. While the Shuttle comes into the book repeatedly as the vehicle carrying this system, this book is a chronological account of the Spacelab program from 1967 to 1985. It is filled with illustrations, many in color, and while it has no notes, a list of sources is included, as well as facsimile reprints of many important documents.

Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center. Spacelab Life Sciences 1: First Space Laboratory Dedicated to Life Sciences Research. National Aeronautics and Space Administration NP 120, August 1989. This glossy, well-illustrated publication discusses the first in a series of three Shuttle missions dedicated to studying how living and working in space affects the human body. The document reviews the effects of weightlessness on the body, describes some of the major experiments to be performed, and includes a brief description of the crew and the program management.

Morgenthaler, George W., and Hollstein, M., eds. Space Shuttle and Spacelab Utilization: Near Term and Long Term Benefits for Mankind. San Diego, CA: Univelt Inc., 1978. A scientific work, this publication analyzes the uses of the Shuttle for microgravity, biomedicine, and other types of research.

Mueller, George F. "Space Shuttle--Beginning a New Era in Space Cooperation." Astronautics & Aeronautics. September 1972, pp. 20-25. This is a useful article, but chiefly for its positive approach of the subject. It highlights the multinational promise of the Shuttle and the ready access to space it will provide humanity.

Piotrowski, John L. "The Challenge in Space." U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings. 116 (February 1990): 32-39. The author argues that "the Soviets have an impressive array of satellites, a Shuttle . . . and antisatellite capabilities that clearly display their designs for space. The United States needs to develop a space strategy and attain the capability to execute that strategy successfully."

Science in Orbit: The Shuttle and Spacelab Experience, 1981- 1986. Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1988. This contains a mission by mission analysis of the scientific experiments conducted in the Shuttle between its first orbital mission and the Challenger accident.

Shapland, David, and Rycroft, Michael. Spacelab: Research in Earth Orbit. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1984. This is a useful discussion of the development and flight of the laboratory built by Europeans for use aboard the Shuttle in earth orbit. It charts the twelve-year program of development through the first launch on the Shuttle in November 1983. It contains a chronicle of experiments performed in the lab and discusses some of the results. The book is highly illustrated with full-color in many places, and is designed as a readable work for the general public but without sacrificing detail and accuracy.

Vasil'yev, V., and Leonidov, L. Space Transport Vehicle: Purpose, Requirements and Problems. Washington, DC: NASA Technical Translation TT F-14, 26 July 1972. This translation of a Soviet technical paper explores the possibility of a manned, winged, reusable space transporter.

Williamson, Ray A. "The USA and International Competition in Space Transportation." Space. 3 (May 1987): 115-21. This article is one of several that appeared during the latter 1980s reviewing the problems of competition for commercial launches on the Space Shuttle and other lifting vehicles. Williamson examines developments in international space transportation from 1982 to 1992 and the failure of U.S. policies to meet foreign commercial competition in space launches. Two goals have emerged from the U.S. policy debate: to achieve assured access to space and to reduce the costs of sending payloads into orbit. Both goals need to be faced within the context of a wider commitment by government and private industry to space investment.