CHAPTER 4
SHUTTLE DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

Bailey, R.A., and Kelley, D.L. "Potential of Recoverable Booster Systems for Orbital Logistics." Astronautics & Aeronautics. 2 (January 1964): 35-40. One of several articles in this issue devoted to exploring the possibility of a reusable transportation system between the earth and the moon.

Baker, David. "Evolution of the Space Shuttle, Part 1." Spaceflight. 15 (June 1973): 202-10. First in a series of articles dealing with the development of the Shuttle. It focuses on the technological development of the system through the proposed baseline for Phase B studies.

Baker, David. "Evolution of the Space Shuttle, North American Rockwell, Part 2." Spaceflight. 15 (July 1973): 264-68. Second in series of articles, this one reviews the studies in the late 1960s on the possibility of a fully-reusable Shuttle, emphasizing technological development.

Baker, David. "Evolution of the Space Shuttle, North American Rockwell, Part 3." Spaceflight. 15 (September 1973): 344- 52. The third Shuttle article in this series deals with the technological development of the external fuel tanks for the orbiter and the replacement of the piloted flyback booster with a ballistic booster arrangement.

Baker, David. "Evolution of the Space Shuttle, Part 4." Spaceflight. 18 (September 1976): 304-38. Written to commemorate the roll-out of the Orbiter 101 prototype, this article reviews the major design changes and presents an evolutionary update of the Shuttle's technological development.

Baker, David. "Evolution of the Space Shuttle: 7. External Tank Design-1." Spaceflight. 20 (February 1978): 60-66. An article relating the basic development of the technology going into the external tank design.

Baker, David. "Evolution of the Space Shuttle: 8. External Tank Design-2." Spaceflight. 20 (March 1978): 110-15. A continuation of the above article.

Beichel, Rudi. "Nozzle Concepts for Single-Stage Shuttles." Astronautics & Aeronautics. 13 (June 1975): 16-27. Technical article on breakthroughs associated with the propulsion systems being developed to launch the Shuttle orbiter into space.

Bekey, I., and Mayer, H. "1980-2000: Raising Our Sights for Advanced Space Systems." Astronautics and Aeronautics. 14 (July-August 1976): 34-64. This special section on the possible future of space travel has much to say about space stations and flights to Mars and beyond, but also emphasizes the development of the Shuttle as the necessary first step in any ready access to space.

Bell, M. W. Jack. "Advanced Launch Vehicle Systems and Technology." Spaceflight. 20 (April 1978): 135-43. This article is a good report on the development of the launch vehicle that would be used to send the Shuttle orbiter into space.

Bourland, C.T., Rapp, R.M., and Smith, M.C., Jr. "Space Shuttle Food System." Food Technology. 31 (September 1977): 40-41, 44-45. This is a general article on the food system being developed for use in orbit.

Brown, Nelson E. "Safe Shuttle." Technology Review. 79 (March/April 1977): 17-25. This is an early study of the redundant systems and other safety features being incorporated into the Shuttle design by a leading investigator of safety programs.

Brown, Nelson E. "Space Shuttle's Safety and Rescue: An Enormous Jump In Man's Ability to Work in Outer Space." Space World. 10 (December 1977): 16-25. This is a complex article that analyzes the ability of the Shuttle to ensure that no individual is stranded in space and to teach us how best to live in a space environment.

Bursnall, W.J.; Morgenthaler, G.W.; and Simonson, G.E., eds. Space Shuttle Missions of the 80's. San Diego, CA: Univelt Inc., 1977. A multi-author review of the possibilities offered for missions by the Shuttle. It contains the proceedings of the 21st annual meeting of the American Astronautical Society in Denver, CO, 26-28 August 1976.

Caveny, Leonard H. "Thrust and Ignition Transients of the Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Motor." Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets. 17 (November/December 1980): 489-94. This is a technical article on the solid rocket propulsion system developed by Morton Thiokol for the Shuttle.

Chaffee, Norman, comp. Space Shuttle Technical Conference Papers. Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1985. This two volume work contains papers on many aspects of the design and performance of the Shuttle. It was the product of a conference held at the Johnson Space Center on 28-30 June 1983.

Collingridge, David. "Technology Organizations and Incrementalism: the Space Shuttle." Technology Analysis and Strategic Management. vol. 2, no. 2, 1990: 181-200. This article argues that the Shuttle's performance has been poor because it was built using inflexible technology. This was a result of technology development through a centralized process dominated by a few very similar organizations with little debate or compromise, and with risks being taken at the expense of the tax payer. The authors conclude that better technological performance would result from incremental development and decentralized decision making.

Cooper, A.E., and Chow, W.T. "Development of On-Board Space Computer Systems." IBM Journal of Research and Development. 20 (January 1976): 5-19. This is a scholarly article discussing the design and construction of a completely new on-board computer system for the Shuttle. This effort spawned much of the technology now present in modern microcomputers, especially the micro-chip.

Cooper, Paul, and Holloway, Paul F. "The Shuttle Tile Story." Astronautics & Aeronautics. 19 (January 1981), pp. 24-34, 36. This is a good discussion of the development of the special tiles used to protect the Shuttle during reentry. While it contains some technical information about the tiles, it is oriented toward a general audience.

Dankoff, Walter; Herr, Paul; and McIlwain, Melvin C. "Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME)--The `Maturing' Process." Astronautics & Aeronautics. 21 (January 1983): 26-32, 49. This technical article describes the origins and evolution of the Shuttle's main engine. It seeks to show that the main engine, which had received some negative press, was a well-designed and efficient component of the Shuttle. It suggests that the SSME had proven itself "in hundreds of ground tests and five flights of Columbia." Even so, it had been repeatedly redesigned and improved with every orbiter built for the program.

"Designing for Zero-G: The Space Shuttle Galley." Design News. 22 October 1979, pp. 48-50. Although not a particularly scintillating topic, this article treats something not usually discussed in relation to the Shuttle, the galley of the spacecraft and the difficulties of preparing foods in microgravity. The emphasis of this piece is toward the specially-designed and built equipment of the galley.

Donlan, Charles J. "Space Shuttle Systems Definition Evolution." Issues in Program Management, Summer 1992, pp. 46-48. This article reviews some of the Shuttle configurations considered in the early 1970s, stressing their appeal from a cost-effectiveness standpoint. The discussion concentrates on the development of the booster rockets.

Dooling, Dave. Shuttle to the Next Space Age. Huntsville, AL: Alabama Space and Rocket Center, 1979. A collection of presentations from the Alabama Section of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, this book contains 22 articles on a variety of subjects related to the Shuttle. Organized in several sections--National Space Line, Space Applications, Space Science, and Other Space Activities--These papers are largely technical and designed for an academic audience. There are no Shuttle program overviews or historically oriented articles in this publication.

Draper, Alfred C.; Buck, Melvin L.; and Goesch, William H. "A Delta Shuttle Orbiter." Astronautics & Aeronautics. 9 (January 1971): 26-35. This is an excellent technical review of the reasons for developing a delta-wing versus a straight-wing or lifting body orbiter. The authors were engineers for the Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory, and their arguments contributed to the decision to change to a delta configuration, giving the military the 2000 mile crossrange capability it needed for military missions.

Elson, Benjamin M. "Shuttle Booster Motor Tests Planned." Aviation Week & Space Technology. 20 February 1978, pp. 54-59. This is a lengthy article on the development and testing of the Shuttle's booster engines.

Faget, Maxime A. "Space Shuttle: A New Configuration." Astronautics & Aeronautics. 8 (January 1970): 52-61. This is an exceptionally important article written by one of NASA's foremost engineers that looks at the plans for the development of the Shuttle and offers a configuration for a fully-reusable, straight-wing, two-stage system. It contains considerable technical detail of the Shuttle. Faget concludes that his configuration offers complete reusability, economical cost per flight, and a tremendous advantage to the United States's efforts to make space more accessible.

Farrar, D.J. "The Space Shuttle: Concept and Implications." Spaceflight. 14 (March 1972): 104-108. This paper describes the Shuttle, tug, and orbital station transportation system envisioned by NASA and assesses their costs and benefits. It notes as especially significant the European economic implications.

Fitzgerald, Paul E., Jr. and Gabris, Edward A. "The Space Shuttle Focused-Technology Program: Lessons Learned." Astronautics & Aeronautics. 21 (February 1983): 60-67, 72. This article reviews the technological program for the Shuttle, emphasizing the structure and membership of the steering committee, how it functioned, and how NASA "put wheels under" the technology development program for Shuttle in several arenas. These included: propulsion, electronics, aerothermodynamics, aeroelasticity, materials, and biotechnology. The conclusions aimed toward the use of focused-technology development for cost-avoidance and efficient methodology. NASA had a clear picture of what it wanted and organized a research group from several sites and disciplines to work on pieces of it.

Gatland, Kenneth. "Designing the Space Shuttle." Spaceflight. 15 (January 1973): 11-14. Presents information, as it was known at that time, about the configuration of the Shuttle. It describes the orbiter, the reusable boosters, and the expendable liquid fuel tank. It also discusses the Shuttle's avionics systems and the thermal protective effort.

Gatland, Kenneth. "The Space Shuttle." Spaceflight. 13 (May 1971): 158-63. This article describes the Shuttle as conceived in 1970-1971. It emphasizes the two-stage, fully reusable system with crews in each component of the Shuttle, the booster and the orbiter. There is also considerable technical detail in the article about how the reusable system would operate.

Geddes, J. Philip. "Space Shuttle Basics." Interavia. 27 (December 1972): 1331-34. This article, prepared by a staff writer at Interavia, is a good explanation of the Shuttle's mission as understood in 1972, its technological elements, and its challenges for development. Most important, it is one of the earliest full explanations of the Shuttle configuration as eventually built.

General Accounting Office. Space Shuttle: Changes to the Solid Rocket Motor Contract TLSP: Report to Congressional Requestors. Washington, DC: General Accounting Office, 1988. This report, done after the Challenger accident, describes the changes to the Space Shuttle solid rocket motor contract, and assesses the redesign of the motors following the accident, describing the changes in the motor joints and other design changes to enhance the motor's safety and reliability. These changes were incorporated into 13 sets of boosters for the Shuttle. It also comments on the method used to assess the costs of these changes, noting that the fees paid were changed from specific cost and performance incentives to more subjective valuations by NASA.

General Accounting Office. Status and Issues Relating to the Space Transportation System. Washington, DC: General Accounting Office, 21 April 1976. This study assesses NASA's Shuttle development plan and concludes that it could result in increased costs, schedule delays, and performance degradation that were not originally envisioned. The development plan, revised as the program fell behind schedule and took funding cuts, embodied such factors as reduced testing, compressed schedules, and concurrent development and production. The study also asks, but does not truly answer, whether the Shuttle system fulfills the space transportation needs of the United States.

Gentry, Jerauld R. "A Lifting Body Pilot Looks at Space Shuttle Requirements." The Society of Experimental Test Pilots 1970 Report to the Aerospace Profession. 10 (September 1970): 179- 93. A presentation at the 14th Symposium of this professional organization held in Beverly Hills, California, 24-26 September 1970. It discusses the role of the Shuttle as a space vehicle and endorses the concept of a reusable system. It also suggests that jet engines are not necessary for the orbiter and that landing can be accomplished with glide only. This was a critical conclusion and one that was adopted by the program. This was based on the fact that lifting bodies had not been powered for landing and had worked fine.

Getting Aboard the Space Shuttle: Space Transportation System User Symposium. Piscataway, NJ: IEEE, 1978. This publication, the proceedings of a symposium, presents papers on various aspects of the Shuttle and the opportunities it provides. It is especially helpful in ascertaining the positions on the program from the standpoint of different users.

Gore, Rick. "When the Space Shuttle Finally Flies." National Geographic. 159 (March 1981): 317-47. In an article containing an abundance of this publication's trademark photographs, Gore offers an assessment of the development of the Shuttle through its first mission.

Guilmartin, John F., Jr., and Mauer, John Walker. A Shuttle Chronology, 1964-1973. Houston, TX: Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, 1988. 5 Volumes. This is a comprehensive and detailed chronology of the development of the Shuttle, divided into separate sections concerning various aspects of the program and organized chronologically within them. It suffers from some repetition, but still has much valuable information and many reference notes.

Hanaway, John F., and Moorehead, Robert W. Space Shuttle Avionics System. Washington DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1989. This monograph describes the avionics systems of the Shuttle, celebrating the numerous "firsts" in the program: the incorporation of a comprehensive fail operational/fail safe concept; the complex redundancy management techniques which became a standard in the industry; the use of digital data bus technology; the employment of high-order language to develop onboard software; the use of flight software program overlays from a tape memory; integration of flight control functions with the rest of the avionics program; use of digital fly-by-wire technology; use of malfunction cathode-ray-tube display and crew interface approach; and the application of extensive operational services to onboard avionics systems.

Helms, W.R. "History, Design, and Performance of the Space Shuttle Hazardous Gas Detection System." JANNAF Safety and Environmental Protection Subcommittee Meeting. Lompoc, CA: NASA, 1984. pp. 195-202. This is a technical paper on the development of a critical safety feature of the Shuttle, prepared for presentation at this professional meeting.

Jeffs, George W. "The Space Shuttle: Its Interdisciplinary Design and Construction." Interdisciplinary Science Reviews. 4 (September 1979): 208-38. This is a lengthy scholarly article which surveys the scientific and engineering disciplines involved in the design and construction of the Shuttle to trace its evolution. It presents background material on the search for a reusable spacecraft and describes Shuttle operations and capabilities. It goes into detail to review the development of some Shuttle systems, especially as many technological areas were integrated. Jeff specifically looks at aerodynamics, propulsion, structural design, data processing and software, simulation exercises, crew training, verification testing and mission control.

Johnson, Colonel Roger W. "Advanced Space Programs: Transition to the Space Shuttle." Astronautics & Aeronautics. 14 (September 1976): 32-39. This is an intriguing discussion of the movement from the space program of the 1960s to the Shuttle as well as the movement of launches of such items as satellites to deployment by the Shuttle.

Kah, Carl L.C. High Chamber Pressure Reusable Rocket Engine Technology. New York: Society of Automotive Engineers, 1970. This technical work deals with the development of technology necessary to power the Shuttle. It is a good early statement of the status of the effort and the prospects for the future.

Kanai, K. "Applications of Active Control Technology to Spacecraft and Aircraft." Journal of the Society of Instrument and Control Engineering. 23 (January 1984): 157-62. Considers fly-by- wire and active control techniques and applications to the Space Shuttle.

Kranzel, Harold. "Shuttle Main Engine Story." Spaceflight. 30 (October 1988): 378-80. Although overshadowed after the Challenger accident and the attention focused on the solid- fuel boosters, the main engine has had a checkered history as well. The development, test, and problems of the main engine are noted in this short article, along with a table of all main engine flight events whether on an actual mission or a test.

Lewis, Richard. "Whatever Happened to the Space Shuttle?" New Scientist. 87 (31 July 1980): 356-59. Describes the reasons for the delays in the development of the Shuttle.

Loftus, J.P., Jr., et al. "The Evolution of the Space Shuttle Design." Unpublished paper written at the Johnson Space Center, Houston, TX, 1986. This report was prepared in response to requests by the Rogers Commission investigating the Challenger accident. It is a good technical discussion of the Shuttle's development. A copy is available at the History Office, Johnson Space Center.

Lore, Eugene S. "Advanced Technology and the Space Shuttle." AIAA Paper 73-31. Washington, DC: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1973. This was the tenth von Karman Lecture at the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics held in Washington, DC, 8-10 January 1973. It presents a detailed account of NASA's overall technical challenge in the development of the Shuttle.

Lynch, Robert A. "The Space Shuttle Booster." Unpublished paper presented at the eighth Space Congress, Cocoa Beach, FL, 19-23 April 1971. This is an analysis and status report of the Shuttle booster configuration, presenting design features and performance characteristics. It analyzes the reasons behind choosing the delta wing over the stowed, fixed straight, or swept wing configurations, commenting that the delta wing was chosen on the basis of its compatibility to air breathing engine installation requirements rather than purely aerodynamic considerations.

Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center. Technology Influence on the Space Shuttle Development. Houston, TX: Johnson Space Center, 1986. Because of desired low development costs, designers of the Space Shuttle used existing technology whenever possible. This increased maintenance costs and turnaround time to the point that the Shuttle has been unable to obtain the expected low refurbishment and reuse rates. The report concludes that technological emphasis should be placed on maintainability, refurbishment, and reuse.

Malkin, M.S. "Space Shuttle/The New Baseline." Astronautics & Aeronautics. 12 (January 1974): 62-78. Written by the director of the Space Shuttle program office at NASA, this lengthy article is a detailed rundown of the development of the Shuttle through 1973. It contains a wealth of information about the Shuttle's characteristics, dimensions, and capabilities. Virtually every important system in the Shuttle is described in some way, and a host of illustrations help with this process. There is also a description of the proposed flight of the Shuttle from both Cape Canaveral and Vandenberg Air Force Base as well as analyses of trajectories and recovery data. It concludes with a statement of faith that the Shuttle will be built on a reduced budget but with essentially the same capabilities as originally proposed.

McKenzie, P.J. "Structural Review of the Space Shuttle." Journal of the British Interplanetary Society. 26 (October 1973): 597-605. Surveys the preliminary research on reusable spacecraft from which the Shuttle emerged, and asserts that the modified system will not support the development of sophisticated primary structures and metallic thermal protection systems.

Michel, Rudi. "Propulsion Systems for Single-Stage Shuttles." Astronautics & Aeronautics. 2 (November 1974): 32-39. Describes and analyzes the plans for the launch vehicles supporting the Shuttle orbiter.

Morea, S.F., and Wu, S.T. eds. Advanced High Pressure Oxygen/Hydrogen Technology. Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1985. This publication contains the proceedings of a conference on rocket propulsion held at the Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, AL, on 27-29 June 1984.

Mueller, George E. Address on the Space Shuttle before the British Interplanetary Society, University College, London, England. August 10, 1968. Copy in National Aeronautics and Space Administration Reference Collection, NASA History Office, Washington, DC. This presentation, made by NASA's Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight, may well have been the first public presentation of the Shuttle concept to a scholarly community. It set up the rationale, technological choices, and planning activities taking place at NASA for the development of the Space Transportation System.

NASA's Plans to Procure New Shuttle Rocket Motors. Washington, DC: U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Government Operations, 1986. This lengthy report contains the hearing of the Legislation and National Security Subcommittee on this subject conducted on 31 July 1986 after the loss of Challenger.

NASA Space Shuttle Technology Conference. Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1971. NASA Technical Memorandum (TM) X-2272, X-2273, and X-2274. This three volume work contains the presentations of a conference held at Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia, 2-4 March 1971. Each volume is dedicated to a specific area of consideration: I- Aerothermodynamics, Configurations, and Flight Mechanics; II- Structure and Materials; and III-Dynamics and Aeroelasticity.

"Orbiter Protective Tiles Assume Structural Role." Aviation Week & Space Technology. 25 February 1980, pp. 22-24. Although a news story, this article is an excellent report on the development and use of the special tiles on the orbiter used to absorb heat during reentry.

Poll, Henry O., et al. Space Shuttle Reaction Control System. New York: Society of Automotive Engineers, 1970. This is a short technical publication dealing with the development of one aspect of the Shuttle's control system.

Rainey, Robert W. "Progress and Technology for Space Shuttles." Unpublished paper presented at the sixteenth annual meeting of the American Astronautical Society, Anaheim, CA, 8-10 June 1970. AAS Paper 70-046. This is a fine technical paper on the efforts to develop a reusable spacecraft written by a senior engineer at the Langley Research Center. Rainey notes that during the past several years, considerable effort has been expended by industry and government to define low-cost transportation systems envisioned to operate from earth to orbit and return. The most recent NASA studies, the Phase A Integral Launch and Reentry Vehicle (ILRV) Studies, were completed in the latter part of 1969. The study's goals were to determine the feasibility of Shuttle vehicles that would reduce the cost per pound of payload to orbit by an order of magnitude with improvements in systems reliability and crew safety. Primary emphasis was place upon two-stage fully reusable systems, and in this paper, designs of the Phase A Shuttles are examined. Special attention is given to contractual and in-house activities in several key technological areas: structures, thermal protection, aerothermodynamics, aerodynamics, and approach and landing.

Robinson, John W. ed. Shuttle Propulsion Systems. New York: American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1983. This book collects presentations made at the annual meeting of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers on 14-19 November 1982 relating to the development and technology of the Shuttle propulsion system.

Salkeld, Robert, and Skulsky, R.S. "Air Launch for Space Shuttles." Acta Astronautica. 2 (July/August 1975): 703-713. Explores some of the possibilities for launching the Shuttle not vertically on a booster like ordinary rocket payloads but from aircraft for flight into the upper atmosphere and eventually to space using its aerodynamic features.

Salkeld, Robert. "Single-Stage Shuttle for Ground Launch and Air Launch." Astronautics & Aeronautics. 17 (June 1979): 52-64. This article describes the technical effort going into the study of launch vehicles for the Shuttle. Salkeld stresses the diversity of design potential that decision makers should grasp to shape effective space transportation. Various and diverse types of single-stage Shuttles are identified in terms of mission and operational capabilities, physical characteristics and economics. It is shown that the development of economical space transportation can be realistically regarded as feasible, and that it will make possible the performance of dependable, commercially viable operations beyond the earth. With this system it should be possible to bring such systems into operation within 10-15 years. The development of single-stage Shuttles is expected to represent a significant advance in space travel.

Salkeld, Robert. "Space Shuttle: Some Growth Possibilities." Spaceflight. 15 (November 1973): 402-408. This article looks at the Shuttle as a means to develop new capabilities and exploit new technologies. Argues that the single-stage concept of the Shuttle appears particularly interesting in view of the possibility that such a vehicle could be converted directly to a global-orbiter commercial transport by exchanging rockets for jets. Salkeld considers other growth options: replacing the solid rocket motors with a fully reusable booster, replacement of both solid motors and the main tank with reusable boosters, and replacement of the entire baseline Shuttle with a fully reusable single-stage vehicle. For almost all growth concepts, irrespective of vehicle configuration, mixed-mode propulsion promises significant advantages in the form of improved performance, reduced vehicle size and manufactured hardware weight, and reduced propellant costs.

Scherer, Lee R. "Space Transportation System: Status Report." British Interplanetary Society Journal. 32 (October 1979): 364-70. A useful synopsis of the development of the Shuttle through its flight tests, written for a British audience. The emphasis is on hardware and the overall system.

Scott, Harry A. "Space Shuttle: A Case Study in Design." Astronautics & Aeronautics. 17 (June 1979): 54-58. This is a brief review of the evolution of the Shuttle design describing how one contractor involved in the studies, Rockwell International, worked through the process. It emphasizes the changing requirements for the Shuttle, as well as the difficult economic problems the program faced, during the course of these studies. It has a good degree of technical information and discusses how the DOD requirements for cross-range capability prompted the change from a straight to delta wing configuration. Scott's conclusion that "the orbiter's performance requirements were reasonably maintained and achieved even though the program's projected funds were halved" is debatable.

Sheridan, Caroline T. "Space Shuttle Software." Datamation. 24 (July 1978): 128-40. A useful article on the problems, priorities, and promise of the computer systems being developed for use in the Shuttle.

The Space Shuttle--Its Current Status and Future Impact. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers, 1981. A collection of 12 technical presentations on the Shuttle and various aspects of the program. Maxime Faget offers perhaps the most useful article for the nonspecialist on the overall development of the Shuttle.

Space Shuttle Main Engine Development Program. Washington, DC: U.S. Senate Commerce, Science, and Transportation Committee, 1978. This is the report of a hearing on the Shuttle's engine development difficulties before the 95th Cong., 2d Sess.

Space Shuttle Missions of the '80s. San Diego, CA: American Astronautical Society, 1976. This book is volume 32 of the society's "Advances in Astronautical Sciences" series. It speculates on the nature and extent of Shuttle missions of the future and suggests that routine access to space will come as a result of these missions, space science will blossom, and the exploration of the planets will be possible. It is a promotional work, but based on realistic possibilities.

Space Shuttle Program: Proceedings of the Short Course, Boulder, CO, October 6-7, 1972. Boulder, CA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1973. The Space Shuttle program is surveyed in several papers dealing with project management and planning functions, design concept definition studies, projected mission profiles, vehicle hardware and systems configurations, testing programs, and mission support requirements. Specific topics considered include typical payload capabilities in various types of missions, flight operations concepts, aerodynamic aspects of the orbiter, thermal protection systems, design and performance of the main engines, design of the external drop tank and solid rocket motor stages, recovery and refurbishment of the Shuttle, and launch center tasks and facilities.

Space Transportation System User Handbook. Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, June 1977, rev. ed. May 1982. This loose-leaf booklet explains the Shuttle's development and uses. It describes the types of user support it was designed for and offers some pricing background.

Strouhal, George, and Tillian, Donald J. "Testing the Shuttle Heat Protection Armor." Astronautics & Aeronautics. 14 (January 1976): 57-65. This is a technical paper on the design, construction, and testing of heat protection systems on the Shuttle. Specific discussion of the heat-absorbing tiles on the outside of the orbiter is included.

Talay, T.A.; Morris, W.D.; Eide, E.G.; and Rehder, R.R. "Designing for a New Era of Launch Vehicle Operational Efficiency." Astronautics & Aeronautics. 21 (June 1983): 44-48. The authors contend that now is the time to start work on a next- generation Shuttle, and that early and explicit consideration of operational requirements and assessment of their effects provide the best means of designing an economically viable system. Some of the operational features affecting configuration design are fleet size, operational mode, refurbishment, and resource requirements. The proposed system has a simplified operational role in the Shuttle, which, in addition to transportation, also had to allow experiments, support payloads, and stay longer than a week in orbit. Once the Space Station is in orbit, it will only be required to provide transportation. The authors advocate the development of a two-stage, fully-reusable launch vehicle designed to carry 150,000 pounds to a space station, off-load, and return. It would always be launched fully loaded and its cargo would be processed and redistributed at the space station. The authors give some attention to ground servicing, flight operations, rendezvous- compatible orbits, launch windows, standard trajectories, entry windows, operational costs, the mission model, and resource requirements.

Tischler, A.O. "A Commentary on Low-Cost Space Transportation." Astronautics & Aeronautics. 7 (August 1969): 50-64. A well-done technical discussion of the ability of the United States to develop a reusable, and therefore low-cost, space vehicle as the follow-on system for the Saturn rocket. Written by the head of the NASA Office of Advanced Research and Technology, it suggests that "the pace of payload development, the availability of manpower and funds, and the technological state of the art argue a transitional approach to fully recoverable large space transports" (p. 50).

Tischler, A.O. "Defining a Giant Step in Space Transportation: Space Shuttle." Astronautics & Aeronautics. 9 (February 1971): 22-67. This is a special section in this publication relating to the Shuttle's development as it stood early in the program. Tischler had specialists write on the following: technology for aerothermodynamics, structures, dynamics and aeroelasticity, life support, protective systems, crew system interface, and propulsion. It represents a very good technical overview of the major fronts on which the Shuttle was moving in 1970-1971.

Tischler, A.O., ed. Space Transportation System Technology Symposium. Cleveland, OH: Lewis Research Center, 1970. Technical Memorandum (TM) X-52876. This seven-volume work is the published proceedings of a symposium on the Shuttle held at Lewis Research Center on 15-17 July 1970. Consisting of papers on various subjects, the volumes are: I-Aerothermodynamics and Configurations; II-Dynamics and Aeroelasticity; III-Structures and Materials; IV-Propulsion; V-Operations, Maintenance, and Safety; VI-Integrated Electronics; and VII-Biotechnology.

Townsend, Marjorie R. "Direct Delivery of Automated Spacecraft Using the Shuttle: Thoughts for the Designer." Astronautics & Aeronautics. 15 (April 1977): 32-38. Argues that the Shuttle should be employed for the movement of special items between earth and orbit for future exploration beyond the planet. It offers some thoughts on how the Shuttle should be built to make this more practicable.

Vaughn, Robert L. ed. Space Shuttle: A Triumph in Manufacturing. Dearborn, MI: Society of Manufacturing Engineers, 1985. This collection of essays, written by members of the society of Manufacturing Engineers, discusses the construction of the Shuttle.

Von Braun, Wernher. "The Reusable Space Transport." American Scientist. 60 (November-December 1972): 730-38. This is a lucid description of the Shuttle as envisioned near the time of its approval by President Nixon. It describes the components of the Shuttle's configuration and in the best sense of the term tries to sell the program, arguing that the system will be versatile and the keystone of the continuing exploration and use of space.

Weidner, Don K., ed. Space Environment Criterial Guidelines for Use in Space Vehicle Development (1969 Revision). Huntsville, AL: Marshall Space Flight Center, 1969. This document provides a cross-section of national environmental data for use as design criteria guidelines in the space vehicle development program. The document focuses on earth science issues, especially atmospheric considerations.

Whitsett, C.E., Jr. "Manned Maneuvering Units." Space Shuttle and Spacelab Utilization: New-term and Long-Term Benefits for Mankind. San Diego, CA: Univelt, 1978. pp. 617-31. This article, delivered at the sixteenth Goddard Memorial Symposium in 1978, focuses on the manned maneuvering units that the Shuttle crews would use in orbit. The new space suit with attached life- support system and self-contained propulsion backpack would allow the crew to venture beyond the confines of the cargo bay. It would allow free-flight from the Shuttle cargo bay to satellites and return. The freedom of movement this allows would make working in space a realistic capability. The paper describes the suit and its method of operation.

Yaffee, Michael L. "Alternate Booster Evaluation Set." Aviation Week & Space Technology. 24 January 1972. pp. 36-37. This article reports on the efforts of Grumman and Boeing in investigating the use of a pump-fed booster as an alternative to the pressure-fed ballistic recoverable booster that had been intended for the Shuttle.