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In
the area of human space flight, the Space Shuttle
program continued its goal of providing safe, reliable,
and affordable access to space. In FY 1998, 28 crew
members spent approximately 605 crewdays in orbit,
including time spent by American astronauts aboard
the Russian space station Mir. Also in FY 1998, the
Shuttle successfully completed the ninth and last
of its planned rendezvous missions to Mir. This milestone
marked the completion of Phase I of the International
Space Station (ISS) program. On this same mission,
the Shuttle carried into orbit the Alpha Magnetic
Spectrometer (AMS) payload. The cutting-edge AMS scientific
payload found and measured highly charged particles.
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The
Space Shuttle program continued to fly more safely, reliably,
and at lower cost than at any previous time in its history.
Recent restructuring activities have resulted in operations
cost reductions of more than 30 percent since 1992. The
consolidation of Space Shuttle contracts into a single prime
contract continued on pace with the incorporation of the
Solid Rocket Booster production contract into the Shuttle
Flight Operations Contract in FY 1998. The Phase I upgrades,
to improve Shuttle safety and performance, neared completion
in FY 1998 with the first launch of the Super Light Weight
Tank. The program also scheduled final testing of the Block
II Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) in preparation for its
first flight on STS-96 in September 1999. The Block II SSME
will require less maintenance between flights than previous
engines and will deliver increased thrust so that, when
combined with flight design changes, the Shuttle will be
able to reach the altitude and inclination of the ISS orbit
with as much as 17,200 pounds of additional payload. Phase
II upgrades to improve supportability and combat obsolescence
also progressed on schedule
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The
Space Shuttle Columbia begins its rollout from
the Vehicle Assembly Building for the April 1998 STS-90
mission, whose primary payload was the Neurolab experiments
focusing on the effects of microgravity on the human
nervous system. |
During
FY 1998, NASA and the Russian Space Agency (RSA) completed
joint activities on the Shuttle-Mir program (Phase I), ending
more than 2 years of U.S. astronaut presence aboard Mir
in orbit. With the successful completion of the Shuttle-Mir
program, a total of 17 successful crew member exchanges
between the two countries occurred, with 10 cosmonauts on
the Shuttle and 7 U.S. astronauts on long-duration missions
on Mir. As a highly valuable precursor for the successful
implementation of Phase II and III of the ISS program, Phase
I provided significant benefits in four major areas:
- American
and Russian experts had an opportunity to learn from each
other on ways to work together on operating and maintaining
a space station.
- NASA
gained a better understanding of ways to conduct long-duration
science in advance of planned research on the ISS.
- U.S.
and Russian hardware, systems, and scientific aims have
become closely integrated.
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ISS risks were reduced through lessons learned and a better
understanding of joint operations, the spacecraft environment,
rendezvous and docking, on-orbit repair, spacewalks, and
hardware exchange.
Also
on the ISS program, the Russian-built first element, Zarya
(which is Russian for "sunrise"), was delivered
to the launch site in Baikonur. The second major element,
Unity (Node 1), along with two Pressurized Mating Adapters,
all built by the United States, underwent final checkout
and inspection at the Kennedy Space Center. Several other
key elements, including the Z-1 Truss, a third Pressurized
Mating Adapter, and the Integrated Electronics Assembly,
were also delivered to Kennedy in preparation for a mid-1999
launch. At the end of FY 1998, NASA had completed 75 percent
of its development activity, and its international partners
had also made considerable progress. Although funding shortfalls
in Russia continued to present challenges, RSA's work on
the development of the Service Module continued. To address
Russian government funding shortfalls, NASA continued to
implement its contingency plans, established in 1997, and
planned to proceed with the launch of its first two elements
in late 1998.
In
terms of robotic space flight, there were 29 successful
U.S. Expendable Launch Vehicle launches in FY 1998. Of those,
3 were NASA-managed missions, 2 were NASA-funded/Federal
Aviation Administration (FAA)-licensed missions, 8 were
Department of Defense (DoD)managed missions, and 16
were FAA-licensed commercial launches. There were two launch
vehicle failuresa U.S. Air Force-managed Titan IV-A
and a commercially licensed Delta III. NASA collaborated
with the U.S. Air Force, Lockheed Martin Aeronautics, and
Boeing in the failure investigations, corrective action,
and return-to-flight process.
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In
June 1998, the STS-91 crew and the Russian Mir-25 crew
pose for the traditional joint inflight Shuttle-Mir
portrait in the Core Module of the Russian space station.
Left to right are cosmonaut Valery Ryumin (who flew
as a mission specialist on Discovery), mission
specialist Wendy Lawrence, Shuttle commander Charles
Precourt, Andrew Thomas (who spent more than 4 months
on Mir), Mir commander Talgat Musabayev, mission specialist
Janet Kavandi, Shuttle pilot Dominic Gorie, cosmonaut
Nikolai Budarin, and payload commander Franklin Chang-Díaz.
This was the last docking of the Shuttle-Mir program. |
In
the area of space communications, NASA's space and ground
networks successfully supported all NASA flight missions
and numerous commercial, foreign, and other Federal Government
agency missions. Mission Control and Data Systems provided
the operation of 15 on-orbit science missions, including
launch and mission support for the Tropical Rainfall Measuring
Mission (TRMM) and the Transition Region and Coronal Explorer
(TRACE). In FY 1998, NASA awarded a consolidated space operations
contract to outsource NASA's space operations under a single
contract. The contractor, Lockheed Martin, will manage all
of NASA's data collection, telemetry, and communications
operations supporting NASA's Earth-orbiting satellites,
planetary exploration, and human space flight activities.
NASA
continued to work with DoD and other agencies to develop
a national architecture for satellite operations and to
provide the radio spectrum allocations crucial to U.S. Government
flight missions. NASA personnel also made significant improvements
to NASA's mission control and data systems as well as ground
networks, which contributed to several successful launches
and significantly reduced operations staff for several orbiting
missions. Internationally, NASA collaborated with colleagues
from Japan, the European Space Agency (ESA), Germany, and
France to foster the cooperative and reimbursable use of
communications networks.
NASA's
Office of Life and Microgravity Sciences and Applications
(OLMSA) supported a total of 850 ongoing noncommercial investigations
during FY 1998. Commercial investment in space products
and service development took significant steps forward,
as demonstrated by an increase from $35 million to $48 million
of industry-leveraged resources. Also, 28 new industry partners
joined the Commercial Space Centers, and OLMSA researchers
received 11 commercial patents.
Findings
in the life and microgravity sciences ranged from fundamental
information on human physiology to basic results in combustion
science. For example, Dr. Kenneth Baldwin published research
that has clarified the role of nerve connections and the
thyroid gland in the development of muscle. Dr. Gerald Faeth's
research in combustion science suggested the existence of
a "soot paradigm," which may supply improved methods
for controlling soot processes in applications such as aircraft
propulsion systems, diesel engines, and furnaces. Based
on protein crystal growth in space, NASA's Dr. Alex MacPherson
established a new benchmark in the study of viruses by publishing
a structure of the satellite tobacco mosaic virus at far
greater resolution than had ever been published before.
OLMSA's
premier mission of FY 1998 was the flight of the Neurolab
mission, which addressed both basic neuroscience questions
and applied studies related to the astronauts' responses
to space flight. Among the many "firsts" on this
mission were three experiments that used state-of-the-art
technology to record nerve activity in human and nonhuman
subjects.
Also
flown in FY 1998 was the fourth U.S. Microgravity Payload
(USMP-4) mission. OLMSA researchers used this mission to
conduct a series of experiments in physics and materials
science. The initial results included validation of theories
of physical behavior on a quantum mechanical scale when
matter is confined to only two dimensions during the Confined
Helium Experiment. The mission also allowed researchers
to measure the growth speed and crystal size of a material
that serves as a model for industrially useful metals.
In
FY 1998, the Phase 1 NASA-Mir research program included
seven biomedical experiments. These evaluated the effects
of space flight on sleep patterns, vestibular and immune
function, the risk of developing kidney stones, changes
in bone mineral density, changes in muscle mass and strength,
cardiovascular system function, and interactions among crew
members and ground support.
FY
1998 was another auspicious year for NASA's Space Science
Enterprise. It began with the successful launch of the Cassini/Huygens
mission to Saturn on October 15, 1997. The Galileo and Mars
Surveyor spacecraft made new discoveries in our solar system,
such as ancient riverbeds on Mars, a possible icy subsurface
ocean on Jupiter's moon, Europa, and volcanic fireworks
on Io, another Jovian moon. In addition, for the first time
in 25 years, NASA was once again studying the Moon with
the Lunar Prospector mission.
Other
space science missions yielded fascinating data as well.
The Solar and Heliospheric Observatory discovered that solar
flares produce seismic waves in the Sun's interior that
closely resemble those created by earthquakes on our planet.
The TRACE mission revealed how magnetic fields control the
structure of the Sun's corona and produce arch-like structures
filled with million-degree gas.
On
August 27, 1998, a group of scientists led by NASA observed
an intense wave of gamma rays emanating from a catastrophic
magnetic flare on a mysterious star 20,000 light years away.
The waves from this "magnetar" struck Earth's
atmosphere, and their impact has begun providing important
clues about some of the most unusual stars in the universe.
The
Hubble Space Telescope continued its impressive performance,
revealing the first optical glimpse at what is possibly
a planet outside our solar systemone that apparently
has been ejected into deep space by its parent stars. Located
450 light years away in the sky (the deepest Hubble image
thus far) within a star-forming region in the constellation
Taurus, the object seems to lie at the end of a strange
filament of light. This suggests that it may have been flung
away from the vicinity of a newly forming pair of binary
stars.
For
the Earth Science Enterprise (formally Mission to Planet
Earth), FY 1998 was a year of great accomplishment. TRMM
was launched successfully in November 1997 and exceeded
expectations by providing unprecedented insights into rainfall
cloud systems in the tropics and subtropics. TRMM's all-weather,
sea-surface temperature data from September 1998 indicated
a possibly waning La Niña event, a cooling phase of El Niño.
In August 1998, TRMM provided spectacular images of Hurricane
Bonnie over the Atlantic Ocean by capturing towering clouds
extending up to 59,000 feet above the hurricane's eye. Earth
scientists believe that the scientific understandings resulting
from this mission will revolutionize knowledge of how storms
and hurricanes form and dissipate. Earth scientists also
completed an experiment off the coast of Florida, the Convection
and Moisture Experiment, to measure the hurricane's structure,
environment, and changes in intensity. This effort coincided
with the occurrence of Hurricanes Bonnie, Danielle, Earl,
and Georges.
The
Earth Science Enterprise also created the new Applications,
Commercial, and Education Division. This new organization
reflects an increased emphasis on partnerships between the
commercial remote-sensing industry and the NASA-sponsored
science research community. NASA's Earth Science Enterprise
also began a planning process to enhance international and
interagency partnerships for the follow-on Earth Observing
System (EOS) missions. NASA also made significant progress
in planning the next generation of instruments and spacecraft
for future Earth Science Enterprise missions.
During
FY 1998, NASA's Aero-Space Technology Enterprise (formerly
called the Aeronautics and Space Transportation Technology
Enterprise) continued its work in the "Three Pillars
for Success" initiativeGlobal Civil Aviation,
Revolutionary Technology Leaps, and Access to Space. Within
these pillars, NASA defined 10 long-range technology goals.
These goals address the Nation's critical aerospace needs,
which include productivity, the protection of the environment,
low-cost access to space, and most notably aviation safety.
Within
the Aviation Safety program, NASA tested the airborne Light
Intersection Direction and Ranging (LIDAR), which demonstrated
the capability of precisely detecting the air turbulence
level 1 kilometer ahead of the airplane. This provides sufficient
time for the crew to avoid rough air or to prepare for an
appropriate evasive action. NASA researchers conducted flight
tests to improve our understanding of aircraft tailplane
icing and developed a new, environmentally safe anti-icing
fluid that is so environmentally safe that it has been referred
to as "food grade."
The
Aeronautics Base Research and Technology program continued
its successful list of accomplishments. The Pathfinder Plus
solar-powered remotely piloted vehicle was flown to a world-record
altitude of greater then 80,000 feet. In a cooperative project
with the Russian Central Institute of Aviation Motors, NASA
achieved the first extended supersonic combustion in flight,
using a scramjet flown to Mach 6.6. NASA researchers also
flight-tested two types of advanced electric control-surface
actuators on the F-18 Systems Research Aircraft.
In
the High Speed Research program, NASA successfully completed
a series of flight tests of a Russian Tu-144 supersonic
transport to validate critical engineering prediction capabilities
and learn about supersonic transport design practices and
operational characteristics. NASA researchers obtained aerodynamic,
aerothermodynamic, and heat-transfer data at speeds in excess
of Mach 2 to validate computational fluid dynamic and heat
transfer codes. Other experiments measured the effectiveness
of techniques to reduce cabin noise, pilot handling qualities,
and slender wing ground effects.
The
Advanced Subsonic Technology program made several important
accomplishments. In terms of reducing commercial transport
emissions, advanced combustor concepts demonstrated a 50-percent
reduction in nitrous oxide (NOx) in flame tube tests, and
these showed promise for achieving the program's 70-percent
NOx reduction goal. NASA researchers also participated in
a joint international field campaign to probe the North
Atlantic flight corridor to study the chemical, radiative,
and dynamic interactions between Earth's background atmosphere
and aircraft exhaust.
Research
in noise-reduction technology progressed as well. Active
noise-control tests in a high-fidelity engine simulator
indicated that it is technically feasible to reduce fan
tones by as much as 10 decibels. NASA aeronautics researchers
also developed concepts that indicate great promise in significantly
reducing flap edge airframe noise. In developing ways to
lessen the noise impact on passengers, researchers conducted
flight tests that demonstrate an optimized active control
system to reduce the interior noise of propellers on commuter
aircraft.
During
FY 1998, the Space Transportation Technology program achieved
several major milestones. The X-33 flight demonstrator successfully
completed its Critical Design Review, verifying the feasibility
of the integrated design prior to major hardware construction
and integration. The dual-lobe liquid oxygen tank, the first
major X-33 flight component, was delivered to the X-33 final
assembly area in Palmdale, California. Workers also broke
ground for the X-33 launch site.
The
X-34 program also completed many key milestones in FY 1998.
The program completed the first flight wing, the test fuselage,
the qualification testing on the liquid oxygen tanks, and
the delivery of the first tank. Technicians also completed
the development of the generator component and the injector
development testing, while work on the Fastrac engine continued
on pace. Finally, the propulsion test article and Fastrac
engine assembly were delivered to NASA's Stennis Space Center
for testing.
In
the area of international relations, the most significant
new agreements were those associated with the ISS. In January
1998, the United States, Russia, Japan, 10 nations of Europe,
and Canada signed the Intergovernmental Agreement for the
ISS. In parallel, NASA memoranda of understanding (MOU)
were signed with the Canadian Space Agency, ESA, RSA, and
the government of Japan, outlining additional details of
the cooperation. In October 1997, another related agreement
was signed between NASA and the Brazilian Space Agency,
which makes Brazil a participant in the program. Other agreements
signed during this period provide for cooperation in aeronautics,
space science, Earth science, and life and microgravity
sciences.
NASA
actively participated in many international aerospace forums.
These included various coordination mechanisms for strategic
planning in life and microgravity sciences, space science,
Martian exploration, orbital debris research and observations,
and Earth observation programs. In addition, NASA led the
U.S. delegation to the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee
of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of
Outer Space (COPUOS) and supported the Legal Subcommittee
and full COPUOS meetings. A major focus for COPUOS was the
planning for Unispace III, a United Nations conference on
space, held in July 1999 in Vienna, Austria. NASA was actively
involved in drafting background papers and report material,
as well as in planning for various technical sessions.
Several
significant international projects achieved the major milestone
of launch in late 1997. The Cassini mission to Saturnwith
the orbiter provided by NASA, the Huygens Probe provided
by ESA, and the communications system provided by the Italian
Space Agencywas launched in October 1997. The U.S.-Japanese
TRMM was launched in November 1997 and has returned substantial
data during its highly successful operations. Virtually
all Space Shuttle missions during this period included crew
members from other nations, foreign payloads, or both. The
Shuttle-Mir cooperation between NASA and RSA was brought
to a successful close in June 1998. In support of NASA's
research programs, numerous aircraft campaigns were conducted
around the world for space and Earth science observations.
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This
shows workers installing three radioisotope thermoelectric
generators on the Cassini spacecraft at Cape Canaveral
Air Station's Launch Complex 40. Cassini was successfully
launched on October 25, 1997; its target is Saturn.
NASA provided the orbiter, ESA contributed the Huygens
Probe, and the Italian Space Agency delivered the communications
system. |
Overall,
safety remained one of NASA's fundamental or core operating
values. In support of this value during FY 1998, NASA implemented
a multifaceted approach to measure and improve the health,
stability, and capability of its safety processes. By combining
customer agreements, annual planning, and process and performance
assessment into a unified effort, NASA strengthened safety
insight. Independent assessments, conducted by NASA safety
and mission assurance experts, provided valuable input for
several NASA programs, including the Space Shuttle, the
ISS, the Super Light Weight Tank, the X-33 and X-34, Cassini,
the Chandra X-ray Observatory (formerly the Advanced X-ray
Astrophysics Facility), and the Stratospheric Observatory
for Infrared Astronomy. NASA extrapolated valuable safety
and mission assurance information from the Shuttle-Mir program
and incorporated these lessons into the ISS. NASA has fortified
its risk management implementation through policy, training,
and tools. NASA safety personnel developed the Quantitative
Risk Assessment System, a new software tool for advanced
computer-assisted quantitative or probabilistic risk assessment.
This software, generic enough to support any NASA program,
already began supporting decisionmaking on Space Shuttle
safety-enhancing upgrades. During FY 1998, three NASA Centers
(Johnson Space Center, Kennedy Space Center, and Marshall
Space Flight Center) were certified to ISO 9001 as part
of NASA's continuing effort to implement this quality management
standard. In addition, the Langley Research Center became
the first Federal installation to receive "Star"
certification under the Occupational Safety and Health Administration's
Voluntary Protection Program.
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